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Review
. 2013 May;121(5):521-30.
doi: 10.1289/ehp.1206028. Epub 2013 Mar 22.

Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review

Jay P Graham  1 , Matthew L Polizzotto
Affiliations
Review

Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review

Jay P Graham et al. Environ Health Perspect. 2013 May.

Abstract

Background: Pit latrines are one of the most common human excreta disposal systems in low-income countries, and their use is on the rise as countries aim to meet the sanitation-related target of the Millennium Development Goals. There is concern, however, that discharges of chemical and microbial contaminants from pit latrines to groundwater may negatively affect human health.

Objectives: Our goals were to a) calculate global pit latrine coverage, b) systematically review empirical studies of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality, c) evaluate latrine siting standards, and d) identify knowledge gaps regarding the potential for and consequences of groundwater contamination by latrines.

Methods: We used existing survey and population data to calculate global pit latrine coverage. We reviewed the scientific literature on the occurrence of contaminants originating from pit latrines and considered the factors affecting transport of these contaminants. Data were extracted from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports identified using Web of ScienceSM, PubMed, Google, and document reference lists.

Discussion: We estimated that approximately 1.77 billion people use pit latrines as their primary means of sanitation. Studies of pit latrines and groundwater are limited and have generally focused on only a few indicator contaminants. Although groundwater contamination is frequently observed downstream of latrines, contaminant transport distances, recommendations based on empirical studies, and siting guidelines are variable and not well aligned with one another.

Conclusions: In order to improve environmental and human health, future research should examine a larger set of contextual variables, improve measurement approaches, and develop better criteria for siting pit latrines.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare they have no actual or potential competing financial interests.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Percentage of low-income country populations using pit latrines as a primary sanitation facility (A) and groundwater as a primary drinking water source (B). Countries with no data presented were not included in the analysis.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Lateral travel distances of different contaminants emanating from pit latrines in relation to select latrine/water-point siting guidelines. Verheyen et al. (2009) and Vinger et al. (2012) used existing wells to approximate distances, whereas all other studies used test wells to measure distances. aB. coli; btotal coliforms; ccoliforms; dfecal coliforms; etotal and fecal coliforms; fadenovirus and rotavirus; gchemical stream (nitrate, nitrite, and chloride); hnitrate; initrogen; jsalt tracer.
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