| MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] : 1~38 Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe* 1 Anja Hellmuth**2 Abstract An often discussed group of artefacts are the so-called “Scythian arrowheads” – small three-winged arrowheads with a shaft, sometimes with barb, cast in bronze. Finds in large quantities are known from the Northern Pontic, today’s Ukrainian and Russian territories, Asia Minor, the Near East, Eastern Middle Europe and the Greek mainland. Considering their widespread distribution, researchers were often sceptical concerning their value for answering cultural-historic or chronological questions. New research shows that the “Scythian arrowheads” especially can be used as a tool for reconstructing historical events. In this article the finds of Scythian arrowheads from Greece and from Eastern Middle Europe will be highlighted to discuss the varying connections between the different regions in the Early Iron Age. * The present article is a modified version of a paper presented in May 2008 at “The 3rd University of Chicago Conference on Eurasian Archaeology: Regimes and Revolutions – Power, Violence and Labor in Eurasia between the Ancient and the Modern”. Participation was made possible by financial support through the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). ** Independent Researcher, E-Mail: agrath@web.de 2 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] Keywords: Scythians, Arrowheads, Early Iron Age, Greece, Northern Pontic 1. Introduction From the eighth century onward barrow-graves – kurgans – with a special kind of grave-good-furnishing, called “the Scythian triad”, are found in the forest- and grass-steppe-landscapes of the modern Ukrainian and Russian territories (Граков 1954, 17; see also Hančar 1972, 3).The components of the so-called “Scythian triad” are the bow and arrow, a specific type of horse-harness and the Scythian animal-style decoration on jewellery, arms and harnesses. Horse-harness and bow and arrow have forerunners in the Pre-Scythian period in the northern Black Sea region where the deceased, lying in a crouched position, were buried in wooden chambers in a burial mound consisting of turf1. The character of the chamber-furnishing reminds us of a reflection of the “living-world” into “the world of death”. In some cases the chambers are divided into a weapon-arsenal, a kitchen-area, a stable and living-room for the main deceased, members of the family and his – or her - servants2 (Pic. 1). Putting family-members, servants and horses to death was a regular practise in the Scythian Age (Teržan/Hellmuth/Heimann 2011, 258-259). Weapons – swords, battle-axes, daggers and arrowheads (therefore the bow and arrow) – appear in different combinations in every second grave3, as well as in female (Teržan/Hellmuth/Heimann 2011)- and child-burials. Considering the grave-goods, in both rich and poor burials, a picture arises of a martial society of mounted warriors. Scythian cultural remains, especially arrowheads in a large quantity, were found in Eastern Middle Europe4, in the Mediterranean area5 of today, Greece 1 See, for example, Vysokaja Mogila grave 5 (Тереножкин 1976, 31-34); Hellmuth 2010a, Pl. 238; compare also Zimogor´ja: Brentjes 1995/1996, 197 Pic. 25; Hellmuth 2010, Pl. 245). 2 See, for example, the famous Repjahovataja Mogila grave 1 and grave 2 (Ильинская/ Мозолевский/Тереножкин 1980); Hellmuth 2010a, Pl. 187-191. 3 Compare for the Classical Scythian Period: Hellmuth 2006d, 217ff. 4 Today Poland, the Carpathian-Basin and the South-Eastern Alpine Region. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 3 and Turkey, as well as in the Near East. For a long period the opinions of European researchers concerning these “Scythian” arrowheads were divided. Whereas some researchers reconstructed a historical picture of invading hordes of Scythian warriors entering the heart of Central Europe – comparable with the Huns – others preferred a neutral explanation6. They described them as an unspecific, widespread type. Pic. 1: Warrior-grave from Nižnjego Povolž´ja, grave 23 (after Дворниченко/Плахов/Очир-Горяева 1997) New studies about Scythian use of the bow and arrow in Eastern Middle Europe and the northern Black Sea region actually show that the arrowheads of the so-called “Scythian” type especially can be used as a chronological 5 Attention was paid to the arrowheads found in Greek and Asia Minor by: Yalçıklı 2006; Yalçıklı 2009; Avila 1983, 146ff.; Baitinger 1999; Baitinger 2001, 12ff.. 6 For example: Reinecke 1896; Reinecke 1897; Rostowzew 1931; Fettich 1931; Jahn 1928; Preidel 1934; Sulimirski 1945; Dušek 1964; Bukowski 1977; Chrochorowski 1985; Chochorowski 1998; Teržan 1998. 4 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] indication on the one hand and as a cultural-specific indication on the other (Hellmuth 2006a; Hellmuth 2010a). A new typological classification, based on an analysis of thousands of arrowheads, makes it possible to emphasize the various types’different zones of distribution. This fact means as well that the finds of so-called Scythian arrowheads from Eastern Middle Europe, the Mediterranean area and the Near East no longer represent an unspecific, widespread type. Instead they represent precise regions of the northern Black Sea region and in some cases of the Carpathian Basin too. It is even possible to correlate the varying types and their zones of distribution with some of the ancient settlement-areas of tribes like the Scythians, Sauromatians or Maiotians as they are described by the ancient historian Herodotus (Herodotus Book IV; Hellmuth 2010a, 150). 2. Arrowheads - dating The following section will briefly outline the chronology of the so-called “Scythian Type” of arrowheads, as it is relevant for understanding the development and interpretation of the findings. The typological order of the arrowheads is based on the following criteria: the cross-section of the wings (blade), the shape of the wings in side view, the proportion between the socket (shaft) and the blade, as well as the existence of a barb7.The author suggested a typological order with 20 main-types and various subtypes for Eastern Middle Europe (Hellmuth 2006a) and almost 40 main-types and various subtypes for the northern Black Sea region (Hellmuth 2010a). The different types of arrowheads include types that were utilized during an extensive period of time as well as those that were produced and used for a short period of time. The latter are important as chronological leading-types. Four phases of the “Early Scythian period”, or the “Archaic Scythian period”, were emphasized: Early Scythian I-IV (Hellmuth 2010a, 323-325). The phases 7 These criteria were first mentioned in the older Russian research by P. Rau (1929), K.F. Smirnov (1961), A.I. Meljukova (1964) and V. Petrenko (1967). | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 5 result from the chronological discussion, based on cross-dating and the typological-comparative method with Near Eastern and Greek imports in Scythian kurgans as well as rare natural scientifically determined data, C14- and radiocarbon-data (Hellmuth 2010a, 154ff.). The following is a brief summary. The Early Scythian I phase describes the first finds of the Early Scythian type from the late ninth century BC, discovered for example in the famous kurgan of Aržan 1 in Southern Siberia8. Exclusively bronze arrowheads with a two-winged cross-section and bone arrowheads belong to this first, Early Scythian I phase (Pic. 2a-e). Bone arrowheads show a square and circular cross-section (Pic. 2f-r). Pic. 2: Characteristic arrowheads of the phase Early Scythian I; arrowheads from Aržan kurgan 1 (after Grjaznov 1984) 8 See: Grjaznov 1984. Summarizing the chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2008,107ff.; Hellmuth 2010a, 156ff. 6 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] The Early Scythian II phase describes the first finds of the Early Scythian type from the eighth century BC, discovered in the foothills of the northern Caucasus9 and in the central Dnepr region10. Early Scythian cultural remains appear in Asia Minor and the Near East (Hellmuth 2008; Hellmuth 2010a, 202-203). Characteristic features are, above all, bronze arrowheads with a two- and three-winged cross-section and an almond-shaped blade (Pic.3b.d-f), as well as arrowheads with a two- and three-winged cross-section and a rhombus-shaped blade (Pic. 3c.h). The two-winged arrowheads with a rhombus-shaped blade are also known by the term “Žabotin-type” (Il´inskaja 1973). Pic. 3: Characteristic arrowheads of the phase Early Scythian II; arrowheads from Aksjutincy kurgan 467 and 469 (after Галанина 1977) The Early Scythian III phase describes the first half of the seventh century BC. The first Early Scythian finds from this period were discovered in 9 For example: Kelermes Kurgan 1/Schulz (Galanina 1997) – chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2010a, 164ff. 10 For example: Repjahovataja Mogila grave 1 (Ильинская/Мозолевский/Тереножкин 1980) – chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2010a,171ff. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 7 the central Dnestr region11, in Transylvania/Romania12 and in Greece13. An important occurrence at the end of the Early Scythian III phase in the middle of the seventh century BC is the disappearance of the so-called two-winged “Žabotin” arrowheads, as well as the first appearance of three-winged arrowheads with an inner socket (shaft). The existence of two and three-winged arrowheads with an almond-shaped blade became increasingly rare by the middle of the seventh century BC (Pic. 4). Pic. 4: Characteristic arrowheads of the phase Early Scythian III; arrowheads from Doliniany kurgan 2 (after Смирнова 1977) The Early Scythian IV phase sets in at the middle of the seventh century BC. It is distinguished by a radical change in the construction of the arrowheads. The most important new feature is the appearance of an inner socket (shaft) of the three-winged arrowheads (Pic. 5h-m). Whereas only a 11 For example: Kurgan 1 from Kruglik (Смирнова 1997) - chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2010a, 206ff. 12 For example: graves of the so-called Ciumbrud-group (Vulpe 1984) - chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2006a, 203. 13 Early finds of “Scythian Type” arrowheads stem for example from Olympia (see: Baitinger 2001, 12ff.). 8 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] few arrowheads with an inner socket appear at the beginning of the Early Scythian IV phase14, their number increases dramatically in the course of the second half of the seventh century BC, and they gradually prevail over the earlier types of arrowheads featuring an outer socket (shaft) from the sixth century BC onwards 15 . The two- and three-winged arrowheads with an almond-shaped blade even disappear completely after the seventh century BC. Pic. 5: Characteristic arrowheads of the phase Early Scythian IV; arrowheads from Basovka kurgan 482 (after Галанина 1977) We can speak about the “Classical Scythian” period from the middle of the sixth century BC onwards. A considerable amount of Greek influence is characteristic of this time16. The sets of arrowhead types from the Classical Scythian period after the sixth century BC differ radically from those of the Early Scythian period including the previously described phases Early Scythian 14 For example: Kurgan 2 from Perebykovcí (Smirnova 1998) - chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2007b, 79-81; Hellmuth 2010a, 221. 15 For example: Kurgan from Višnevka (Андрух 1988) - chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2010a, 230f.. 16 For example: graves with bows and arrows from the necropolis of Olbia (Скуднова 1988) - chronological discussion: Hellmuth 2010a, 291. See as further example: Makeevka Kurgan 491 (Галанина 1977, 26-29; 28 Pl. 11,11-28. 30 Pl. 12,1-16. 31 Pl. 13,1-9; Hellmuth 2010a, Pl. 126-127). | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 9 I-IV17. Three-winged arrowheads with an inner socket (shaft) are prevalent, while the two-winged types no longer exist. Arrowheads with an outer socket (shaft) are still registered, but their proportions have changed, featuring short sockets and a slender, light shape. Barbs are usually missing (Pic. 6a-m). Pic. 6: Characteristic arrowheads of the phase Classical Scythian I; arrowheads from Makeevka kurgan 491 (after Галанина 1977) 3. Arrowheads - distribution It is necessary to give some examples to demonstrate that individual regions can be assigned to specific types of arrowheads. A localization of the region of origin of certain types of arrowheads thus permits identification of their users, which is of particular interest in the case where arrowheads occur in an unusual context – e.g. far away from their actual distribution area. 17 For example: graves with bows and arrows from the large necropolis of Mamaj-Gora (Андрух 2001); Hellmuth 2006d. 10 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] Pic. 7: Distribution of main-types of arrowheads in the different ecological zones in the northern Black Sea-Region (after Hellmuth 2010a); black = two-winged arrowheads, white = three-winged arrowheads, dark-grey = arrowheads with triangular cross-section, bright-grey = bone-arrowheads with square cross-section Between the middle Dnestr-River in the west and the Lower-Volga-River in the east the Black Sea region is divided into three ecological zones: from the north to the south the forest changes to the forest-steppe-region and the grass-steppe-region to the borders of the Black Sea. A fourth ecological zone is the northern lowland and the mountain-region of the Caucasus. Concerning the so-called “Scythian” arrowheads it is possible to emphasize different percentages of the four maintypes within the four ecological zones18. The four maintypes are the bronze arrowheads with two and three wings as well as arrowheads with a triangular cross-section and the bone arrowheads with square cross-section. In the forest-steppe-region of the Middle Dnestr- and 18 The percentage is based on a total amount of 2,050 arrowheads from 235 kurgans/graves between the Middle Dnestr-Region in the west and the Lower Volga-Region in the east. See: Hellmuth 2010a, 15f. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 11 Middle-Dnepr-area the percentage of arrowheads with three wings dominate, and the division of the maintypes is very similar (Pic.7).The percentage of the other three ecological zones is completely different. Looking at the Lower-Volga-region, we notice a clear domination of three-winged arrowheads while all other maintypes are of secondary significance. In the lower Don-region we can notice a domination of two-winged arrowheads and in the northern Caucasian-region the percentages of the four maintypes are balanced. Very possibly these different percentages depend on the various ecological zones. An analysis of the distribution of several types of arrowheads allows us to build up a more detailed picture. A characteristic type in the forest-steppe-region in the Middle Dnestr-area is the three-winged bronze arrowhead with “almond-shaped” blade. With respect to the author’s typological order this type is named as “Group II A”. It is the most important type of arrowhead in the early Scythian age, because it was produced and used exclusively in the late eighth and the seventh century BC. Generally this type is distributed throughout the whole northern Black Sea region (Pic.8), but it is of crucial importance to regard the percentage in every region (Pic. 9). Pic. 8: Distribution of arrowheads with “almond-shaped” blade (Group IIA) (after Hellmuth 2010a) 12 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] We can notice that the highest percentage of arrowheads with an “almond-shaped” blade can be found in the Middle Dnestr-region (23%, n = 2,050). In the Lower Volga-region three-winged arrowheads with an “almond-shaped” blade play a subordinate role (1%, n = 2,050). Pic. 9: Percentage of arrowheads with “almond-shaped” blade (Group IIA) (after Hellmuth 2010a) Another type of three-winged arrowhead belongs in the same period, namely the arrowheads with “arch-shaped blade and barb-shaped end of wings”. With respect to the author’s typological order this type is named as “Group II G”. In comparison with the aforementioned “Group II A” the distribution and percentage of “Group II G” is completely different (Pic. 10). Whereas the dominant percentage of “Group II A” was spread through the Middle Dnestr-region (23%, n = 2,050), the dominant percentage of “Group II G” can be noticed in the Lower Volga-region (29%, n = 2,050) (Pic. 11). | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 13 Pic. 10: Distribution of arrowheads with “arch-shaped” blade and barb-shaped end of wings (Group IIG) (after Hellmuth 2010a) Therefore we can separate in these examples a “western” and an “eastern” type of three-winged arrowhead. According to the ancient written sources such as Herodotus (Book IV) we can interpret the western type as belonging to “Scythian” tribes of mounted nomads, while the eastern type in the Lower Volga-Region could be related to “Sauromatian” tribes. 14 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] Pic. 11: Percentage of arrowheads with “arch-shaped” blade and barb-shaped end of wings (Group IIG) (after Hellmuth 2010a) 4. Arrowheads of the Scythian type in the eastern Hallstatt-Culture and the Mediterranean area at the end of the eighth and in the seventh century BC What about the situation in Eastern Middle Europe and the Mediterranean at the end of the eighth and in the seventh century BC, where, as well as in the northern Black Sea region, Scythian cultural remains – especially arrowheads – were found? For the Near East cuneiform texts of the late eighth century BC are reporting for the first time about nomads from the Eurasian steppes as enemies of Urartu (Nissen 1999, 98; Ivantchik 1993, 127ff.; Ivantchik 2001, 14f.). Urartu´s ruler Rusa I (730-713 BC) fell during a defensive battle against the nomads and the Assyrian king Sargon II (721-705 BC) took advantage of the weakening of Urartu, starting a campaign against Urartu himself and against the nomads as well. Many of the Urartian fortresses in Eastern Anatolia like Bastam (Kleiss | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 15 1979; Kleiss 1988; Kroll 1979), Çavuştepe (Erzen 1978; Erzen 1988) or Ayanis (Derın/Muscarella 2001, 193) show destruction layers from this time containing finds of Scythian type – especially arrowheads in large quantities (Pic. 12). Pic. 12: Two- and three-winged bronze arrowheads from Çavuştepe, Anatolia (after Erzen 1988) In Eastern Middle Europe we can remark a quite similar situation although written sources are lacking. The most important example for Eastern Middle Europe is the fortified hillfort of Smolenice-Molpír in south-western Slovakia. Nearly 400 arrowheads of the so-called “Scythian” type were found on the acropolis during the excavations in the sixties and seventies of the last century by the excavator Mikulas Dušek (Dušek/Dušek 1984; Dušek/Dušek 1995; Hellmuth 2006a)19. The distribution of the arrowheads within the settlement is clear: masses of arrowheads were found in these areas, where the topography allows access (Hellmuth 2006a, 135 Pic. 106; Hellmuth 2006c, 195 Pic. 6). They are the gates and the south-western corner of the acropolis. The situation in which some arrowheads were discovered is especially remarkable; they were still sticking outside on the stone-build walls during the excavations. Furthermore the remains of human skeletons were found below the ruins of gate III as well as in other areas within the acropolis (Hellmuth 2006c, 194-195 Pic. 4-5). Huge traces of fire provide evidence of the attack and the destruction of the settlement. The situation reminds us, as mentioned above, of discoveries that appear in the 19 It is reported that originally there were thousands of arrowheads on the hillfort, and they were repeatedly collected by the local villagers over recent decades. I thank for this information R. Çambal (Bratislava). 16 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] Ancient Near East and East Anatolia, such as in Aššūr (Andrae 1977, 207), Ayanis (Derın/Muscarella 2001, 202) or Bastam (Kroll 1979, 100). The individual types of arrowheads may reflect the origin of the attackers. As an example we look at the two-winged arrowheads with “almond-shaped” blade20. Arrowheads of this type were found in the hillfort at Smolenice-Molpír as well as in other Iron-Age fortified settlements north and south of the Moravian Gate (Pic. 13) (Hellmuth 2010a, 328ff.). Within all of these fortified settlements – like Wicina (Bukowski 1977, 127ff.; 364-367 Pl. 22-25), Strzegom (Bukowski 1977, 112ff.; 360 Pl. 18,1-14) or Sobótka- Slęża (Bukowski 1977, 116ff.; 361 Pl. 19,1-13) – Scythian arrowheads and destruction-layers were documented. In the cemeteries, however, which belong to the settlements, not a single arrowhead is found. If they were part of the regular armaments of the local population, we should expect to find them in the grave-furnishing.The main distribution-areas of two-winged arrowheads with “almond-shaped” blade lay in the Middle-Dnepr region, the Lower-Don-region and in the Northern Caucasus, where the highest percentages, between 13-18% (n = 2,050), can be found (Pic. 14) (Hellmuth 2010a, 17ff.). Pic. 13: Distribution of arrowheads with “almond-shape” blade (Group IA) in Eastern Middle Europe and the northern Black Sea region (after Hellmuth 2010a) 20 “Group I A”according to the author´s definition. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 17 Beside the northern Black Sea region, another zone of distribution can be pointed out: Transylvania. In the local Transylvanian Ciumbrud-Group21 , skeleton-burials with Scythian cultural remains, especially sets of arrowheads and the characteristic akinakes-swords and daggers 22 , are known. Thus Transylvania could be the origin of those who attacked the fortified settlements north and south of the Moravian Gate. However, we can discover some types of arrowheads in the destruction-layers of Smolenice-Molpír as well as in the other settlements, which do not originate from Transylvania or in general from the Carpathian-Basin. Pic. 14: Percentage of two-winged arrowheads with “almond-shaped” blade (Group IA) (after Hellmuth 2010a) 21 According to the definition given by Alexandru Vulpe (see: Vulpe 1984). 22 The akinakes-type swords from Transylvania find parallels in early Scythian kurgans in the Middle Dnepr region like the famous Kurgan 1 from Stajkin Verch (Ильинская 1968, 8-9. 24-27. 24 Pic. 12. 25 Pic. 13. Pl. 1,1-15. Pl. 2,1-49. Pl. 3,1-13. Pl. 4,1-14; Hellmuth 2010a, Taf. 204-205) as well as in the Caucasus region (see Kossack 1983). 18 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] One example is the three-winged arrowhead of the so-called “Group II E” – the three-winged arrowheads with triangular cross-section of the tip (Pic. 15) (Hellmuth 2010a, 346ff.). For this type we can establish the main zone of distribution in the Middle Dnepr region – no other finds are known between the destroyed settlements of the eastern Hallstatt-culture in the west and the Scythian kurgans in the east. Pic. 15: Distribution of three-winged arrowheads with triangular cross-section of the tip (Group IIE) in Eastern Middle Europe and the northern Black Sea region (after Hellmuth 2010a) A more distinct picture is presented by the so-called “Group II N” of the three-winged arrowheads with two vertical grooves: in the whole of Eastern Middle Europe only two examples are known, from the hillfort of Smolenice-Molpír (Pic. 16) (Hellmuth 2010a, 253ff.). The closest finds, which means in this case some thousand kilometres to the east, are known in the Middle-Dnepr-area, but the highest percentage is in the Lower Volga-region (Hellmuth 2010a, 113 Abb. 146). Consequently, these few examples show that we can emphasize a different origin for the individual types of Scythian arrowheads that were found in the destruction-layers of the Iron-Age settlements north and south of the Moravian Gate in Eastern Middle Europe. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 19 Pic. 16: Distribution of three-winged arrowheads with two vertical grooves (Group II N) in Eastern Middle Europe and the northern Black Sea region (after Hellmuth 2010a) For the Mediterranean region the situation concerning nomadic finds is very different. R.A.J. Avila drafted a compilation of the finds of bronze spears and arrowheads from the Greek Late Bronze Age and included in this work a number of Iron-Age finds too (Avila 1983, 146-149). Among these, there are also some bronze arrowheads of the Scythian type (Avila 1983, Taf. 54,1088-1096. Taf. 55,1154-1158.1159-1160.1163). Some pieces originate from the area of the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi (Avila 1983, Taf. 55,1154-1158.1159-1160.1163) (Pic. 17). Since these are surface finds, their chronological position is unclear. From a typological point of view they are forms that belong to the phase Early Scythian II-III (compare Pic. 3-4), so from the late eighth and especially seventh century BC23. More arrowheads of identical types come from Mycenae, Sparta and Athens (Avila 1983, Pl. 54,1088-1096) (Pic. 18). The majority of the finds from Mycenae originate from the Acropolis and represent surface finds; one piece was found in a grave (Avila 1983, 146. Pl. 54,1093) (Pic. 18c). The latter is interesting insofar as it 23 One piece could represent a later type with inner socket, but it is possible too that the socket is broken off (Avila 1983, Taf. 55,1160). 20 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] perhaps provides an indication of the cause of death of the deceased. The arrowheads from Sparta should likewise be settlement finds which can be dated to within the seventh century BC, Laconic I-II (Avila 1983, 146. Pl. 54,1088.1094) (Pic. 18b.d). The arrowheads from Athens are settlement finds as well; one was found in sector B 1892 on the Agora (Avila 1983, 146. Pl. 54,1091), the other one in sector B 1955 in the filling of a fire-pit (Avila 1983, 147. Pl. 54, 1096) (Pic. 18e). Pic. 17: Arrowheads from the Sanctuary of Apollo, Delphi (after Avila 1983) Pic. 18: Arrowheads, a.c – Mykenai, b.d – Sparta, e - Athen (after Avila 1983) Numerous two-and three-winged bronze arrowheads of the Scythian type have been found in the sanctuary of Olympia (Baitinger 2001, 12ff. Pl. 4-12; Hellmuth 2010a, 196f.) (see a selection in Pic. 19). From the circumstances of discovery in Olympia itself, only very few pieces can be dated. Partially | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 21 documented are findings of archaic ceramics besides the two-winged arrowheads, rarely classic wares, of which some pieces have been recovered in the area of the several times modified wall of the Stadion (Baitinger 2001, 14). H. Baitinger lists for the two-winged arrowheads comparable finds from Asia Minor, for example, from Bogazköy or Didyma, where they belong to contexts of the later seventh century BC24.The Olympic arrowhead finds can be seen in all probability as components of weapons- dedications, which were offered in the sanctuary (Baitinger 2001, 29). Pic. 19: Arrowheads from Olympia (after Baitinger 2001) In the sanctuary of Didyma in Asia Minor two-and three-winged bronze arrowheads were discovered as well (Filges/Bumke/Röver/Stümpel 2002, 97 Pic. 15) (Pic. 20). As they are partially connected with a destruction layer, it is very likely that they are testimonies of combat and not of weapon-dedications (Filges/Bumke/Röver/Stümpel 2002, 95). The most recent ceramic finds from the burnt layer at Didyma belong to the later sixth century BC, but there are also arrowhead finds from a layer of the late seventh century BC (Baitinger 24 Boğazköy see: Boehmer 1972. 22 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] 2001, 16). This is also shown by the types of arrowheads themselves, since among them are also found older forms of two-winged arrowheads with a rhombic-shaped blade of the so-called Žabotin-type (Pic. 20b.e), which belong in the late eighth and seventh century BC (compare Pic. 3-c). Confrontations with mounted nomadic groups are attested in Asia Minor due to numerous discoveries, especially for Eastern Anatolia, and also by mentions in Assyrian cuneiform texts (Ünal 1983; Hauptmann 1983; Kossack 1986; Kossack 1987; Ivantchik 1993; Ivantchik 2001; Yalçıklı 2006; Hellmuth 2008; Hellmuth 2010a). Pic. 20: Arrowheads from Didyma (after Filges/Bumke/Röver/Stümpel 2002) In addition to the findings of arrowheads of the Scythian type in the designated places of discovery in Greece and Asia Minor, reversed Greek imports, primarily ceramic, can be found in the grave finds (kurgans) in the northern Black Sea region from the seventh century BC25 (Pic. 21). Among the earliest finds are eastern Greek vessel imports in the tombs of Novoaleksandrovka (Кореняк/Лукьяшко 1982; Hellmuth 2010a, Pl. 152-153. Pl. 152,11), Aksaj (Дьяченко/Мабе/Скрипкин/Клепиков 1999; 25 Hellmuth 2010a, 171f. 195ff.. - About the colonization of the Northern Pontic see also: Ivantchik 2005. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 23 Hellmuth 2010a, 197f. Pl. 3,13) and Bušujka (Беспалый/Парусимов 1991; Hellmuth 2010, Pl. 47,5) in the delta of the river Don.The graves contained numerous arrowheads, to which correspond the finds from Olympia or Delphi. Furthermore, imported eastern Greek pottery was found in grave 2 of the famous Repjahovataja Mogila in the Middle Dnepr-Region, namely a red-painted jug and an amphora, together with the specific arrowheads (Ильинская/Мозолевский/Тереножкин 1980; Hellmuth 2010a, Pl. 189-191. Pl. 189,51.57). G. Kossack compared the pot with the “wave-line-group” of the late seventh and early sixth century BC, the amphora with pieces from the harbor-sanctuary of Chios (Kossack 1986, 133; Kossack 1987, 75)26, and Il´inskaja, Mozolevski and Terenožkin designated the amphora as type “Thassos” (Ильинская/Мозолевский/Тереножкин 1980, 53). It is likely that the appearance of the eastern Greek imported pottery in the kurgan-graves of the northern Black Sea region fits with the first contacts or colony-foundations of east Greek cities in this area. For example, the trading settlement Tanais in the Don-Delta was founded by settlers from Miletus, according to Strabo (Hellmuth 2010a, 196). According to Eusebius, the Greek colony of Olbia had already been founded in the mid-seventh century BC (Hellmuth 2010a, 200; Trachsel 2004, 184 Pic. 105)BC27. It is therefore to be assumed that the findings of arrowheads of Scythian type in the Greek motherland are explained by these first colony-foundations. Thus, they represent also a completely different kind of relationship than that which can be grasped for the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean Europe. While violent conflicts and the associated catastrophic conditions are the determining factors for the latter, the Greek colonies in the northern Black Sea region allowed new ways of acquiring goods for the resident equestrian nomadic groups. 26 Compare: Boardman 1967, 140 Pic. 86,504; Hellmuth 2010a, 172 Pic. 216. 27 Necropolis of Olbia see: Скуднова 1988. 24 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] Pic. 21: Greek imports in kurgans of the Northern Pontic, a – Bušujka Kurgan 2 (after Беспалый/Парусимов 1991), b – Aksaj Kurgan 3 (after Дьяченко/Мабе/Скрипкин/Клепиков 1999), c – Novoaleksandrovka Kurgan 7 (after Кореняк/Лукьяшко 1982), d-e - Repjahovataja Mogila Grave 2 (after Ильинская/Мозолевский/Тереножкин 1980) 5. Arrowheads of the Scythian type in the eastern Hallstatt-Culture and the Mediterranean in the sixth to fifth century BC In the last section we will briefly pay attention to the developments concerning the finds of Scythian type in the centuries after the seventh century BC in Eastern Middle Europe, the Northern Pontic region and the Mediterranean. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 25 All types of arrowheads that were found in the aforementioned locations belong to the phases Early Scythian III and Early Scythian IV of the northern Black Sea region according to the definition given by the author. During that time, the late eighth and seventh century BC, no graves with Scythian or Scythian-like grave-goods can be found near the fortified and destroyed settlements in the eastern Hallstatt-Culture north and south of the Moravian Gate. On the contrary, at the end of the seventh and in the sixth century (Teržan 1998, 514; Chochorowski 1998, 487) new huge cemeteries like Chotín in south-west-Slovakia (Dušek 1966)or Szentes-Vekerzug in Hungary (Párducz 1952; Párducz 1954; Párducz 1955) appear and the most characteristic feature of these cemeteries is a Scythian-nomadic component28: bronze and golden objects with Scythian animal-style decoration 29 (Pic. 22a.c-d), specific horse-harnesses (Pic. 22b), armour-plates (Pic. 22e) and above all sets with arrowheads of the Scythian type (Pic. 22f-h). Pic. 22: Scythian-type grave-goods from the necropolis of Chotín, Slovakia (after Dušek 1966); various graves and sizes of objects, a.e-h: bronze, c-d: gold, b: iron. 28 The so-called “Scythian Triad” – see the introduction of this paper. 29 For example decorated bronze-plates from the quiver (Pic. 24,a) – see: Hellmuth 2007b. 26 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] However, unlike the arrowheads from the settlements that belong to the older types with outer socket (shaft), the arrowheads from the graves present the generally younger types with inner socket (shaft). Furthermore deep changes in the whole cultural structure, social and economic level of the Pannonian-East-Alpine groups of the eastern Hallstatt-Culture can be noticed at the end of the seventh and the beginning of the sixth century BC (Teržan 1998, 518ff.; Teržan 2010, 86): many hillfort-settlements were abandoned and traditional trading-routes got interrupted for decades. Then new flatland-settlements appear and with them the aforementioned cemeteries with flat-graves30. A different kind of picture emerges again for the Mediterranean region, Asia Minor and the Greek mainland. In Asia Minor arrowheads of the Scythian type are documented in discovery sites of the sixth to fifth century BC such as Nemea (Miller 1981, 50. Pl. 14c; Miller 1984, Pl. 42a.)31, Bayraklı (Yalçıklı 2006, Pl. 7,1.5-19), Klazomenai (Yalçıklı 2006, Pl. 7,30) or Pergamon (Gaitzsch 2005, 144. Pl. 39, P21. P42). It may, however, be noted that it is – in contrast to the findings from the late eighth to seventh century BC, in which two-winged arrowheads and three-winged arrowheads with long sockets dominate – now predominantly small three-winged arrowheads with rhombic-shaped blade that appear (Pic.23 and 24). In connection with weapon-finds from Olympia H. Baitinger examined the individual types of arrowheads and their dating (Baitinger 2001, 12ff.). He points out that the small arrowheads with rhombic blade occur wherever the Greeks fought against the Persians (Baitinger 2001, 16. 19. 22-23; Baitinger 1999). Some finds from the Zeus-Sanctuary of Olympia are interpreted as the Persian weapons which the Greeks sacrificed after the battle of Marathon (Baitinger 1999). Also in other sites that are designated as sanctuaries, finds can be thought of as weapons sacrificed after victorious battles. 30 Therefore mound burials were the common burial-form – see: Teržan 1998, 519. It is also worth mentioning that not all regions belonging to the eastern Hallstatt-Culture went through the same changes. In the Slovenian Doljensko-group destruction-layers in the hillfort-settlements appear as well, but these settlements got rebuilt and the cemeteries show continuity too – see: Teržan 1998, 527. 31 Among the arrowheads from Nemea older types occasionally occur. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 27 Pic. 23: Arrowheads of Persian type from Anatolia (after Yalçıklı 2006) Pic. 24: Arrowheads of Persian type from Olympia (after Baitinger 1999) Whether it is necessarily battles against the Persians is questionable. Because the small arrowheads with rhombic blade can be found too, for example, in the previously described cemeteries of the Vekerzug-culture in Central Eastern Europe as in Chotín (Pic. 22g) or Szentes-Vekerzug 32 . Undoubtedly, however, it is an arrowhead type of a younger range, the sixth to fifth century BC, and it represents a different temporal stage in the relations between the mounted nomadic groups and their neighbors. 32 Grave number 107. 28 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] In the Scythian kurgans of the northern Black Sea region from the sixth century onward and especially in the fifth and in the fourth century BC, the influence of the Greek colonies is increasingly felt – including black-and red-figure painted pottery33, wine amphorae34, bronze armor with about as many Corinthian, Chalcidic and Attic helmets35(Pic. 25), as well as Hellenistic influenced gold works36.The Northern Pontic region is described as a major wheat supplier for Ancient Greece (Schiltz 1994, 131; Rolle 1980, 118), and of keen interest were also the Scythian horses (Rolle 1980, 111). Pic. 25: Greek helmets from Ukraine, a – Romejkova, b – Sovetkvadže, c – Geroevka (after Černenko 2006) 33 About black-figure ware see for example: Hellmuth 2010a, 216ff.; about red-figure ware see: Fless 2002; Schiltz 1994, 132. 34 See for example: Hellmuth 2006d, 222f.; Teržan/Hellmuth/Heimann 2011, 260 Abb. 6C.3.; Rolle 1980, 83. 119-120. 35 See for example: Černenko 2006, Pl. 26,559. Pl. 27-29. 36 See for example: Schiltz 1994, 131ff. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 29 The Greek written sources tell of encounters between Greeks and Scythians (Rolle 1980, 111) and vase-paintings such as on the volute-krater of Kleitias depicting the hunting of the Calydonian boar show the bow-shooting Scythians “Toxamis” and “Kimmerios” as a reinforcement of the Argonauts (Pic. 26). Still in the second century AD, three texts of Lucian, which are based on older sources, describe the encounter of the Greek philosopher Anarchasis with the Scythian philosopher Toxaris, who visited Athens (Rolle 1991, 203). Pic. 26: Depiction of the Scythians Toxamis and Kimmerios, armed with bow and arrow, on the Krater of Kleitias (after Schefold 1993) 6. Conclusion In the late eighth century BC tribes of mounted nomads came into contact with Asia Minor and the Near East, as documented in the cuneiform texts of the Assyrian Empire (Nissen 1999, 98-99; Derın/Muscarella 2001, 197; Ivantchik 2001, 14.18; Hellmuth 2008). Although these riding archers seem to be uniform, a detailed analysis of the types of arrowheads they used makes it possible to emphasize regional peculiarities. The division between “western” and “eastern” types of arrowheads in the forest- and the grass-steppe of the 30 | MEDITERRANEAN REVIEW | Vol. 7, No. 1 [June 2014] northern Black Sea region is conspicuous. Analogously to the ancient historical written sources, we can, as an interpretation, reconstruct the settlement areas of different tribes like Scythians in the Middle Dnepr-Region, Maiotians in the southern Russian Kuban-Regionor Sauromatians in the Lower Volga-Region. In the seventh century BC the various tribes of mounted nomads extended their influence further to the west, the Middle-European eastern Hallstatt-Culture. We assume that, building a confederation, they moved westwards following the forest-steppe-zone north of the Carpathians and plundered and destroyed many of the wealthy and important Iron-Age settlements north and south of the Moravian Gate. Some of the destroyed settlements like Smolenice-Molpír in south-west-Slovakia were abandoned for decades. Nevertheless the population in the invaded regions did not cease to exist. Rather a new population can be emphasized: people who used elements and objects of Scythian-type or in a Scythian tradition, like the animal-style and especially bow and arrow. The development of warfare based on the use of bow and arrow on horseback in the Eurasian steppes finally implied deep changes in Eastern Middle Europe. On the other hand, we can see that the mounted nomads were themselves influenced. This influence was, however, from a different direction and in a different way: namely from the Mediterranean area, first through contacts with the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, and later by the colonization of the coasts of the northern Black Sea by the Greeks themselves. | Anja Hellmuth | Horse, Bow and Arrow – A Comparison between the Scythian Impact on the Mediterranean and on Eastern Middle Europe | 31 References Andrae, Walter. 1977. Das wiedererstandene Assur. München: C.H. Beck. Андрух, Светлана И. 1988. “Погребение раннескифского воина в Присивашье”. 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