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Computer Network - Cheat Sheet

Last Updated : 27 Jul, 2025
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A computer network is an interconnected computing device that can exchange data and share resources. These connected devices use a set of rules called communication protocols to transfer information over physical or wireless technology. Modern networks offer more than just connectivity. Enterprises start with digital transformation. Networks are essential to this transformation and its success.

Computer Networking Cheat Sheet | Computer Networks
 

Here is a cheat sheet of computer networks that is given below:

Network Topologies:

Name Description
Bus Topology

A bus topology, also called a line topology, is a type of network topology in which all network devices are connected through a central RJ-45 network cable or coaxial cable.

Ring Topology

A ring topology is a type of network topology in which each device is connected to two other devices on either side using RJ-45  or coaxial cables.

Star Topology

A star topology is a network topology in which each element of the network is physically connected to a central node such as a router, hub, or switch. In a star topology, hubs act as servers, and connecting nodes act as clients.

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, each node is connected to at least one other node and often to multiple nodes. Each node can send and receive messages from other nodes.

Tree Topology

A tree topology is a hybrid network topology in which star networks are interconnected by bus networks. Tree networks are hierarchical and each node can have any number of child nodes.

Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more different network topologies. These topologies can include mixed bus topologies, mesh topologies, ring topologies, star topologies, and tree topologies.

Types of Network:

Network TypeDescription
PAN

Personal  Network is a network consisting of only a small number of devices owned by an individual.

LAN

A local area network is a network that covers a small area (for example, a company's network).

WAN

A wide Area Network is a network that includes many devices and covers a large area. Usually collectively owned.

MAN

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a computer network that connects a findnumber of LANs to form a larger network so that the computer resources can be shared.

TCP/IP Model and OSI Model: 

TCP/IPOSI ModelProtocols
Application LayerApplication LayerDNS, DHCP, FTP, HTTPS, IMAP, LDAP, NTP,POP3, RTP, RTSP, SSH, SIP, SMTP, SNMP, Telnet, TFTP
Presentation LayerJPEG, MIDI, MPEG, PICT, TIFF
Session LayerNetBIOS, NFS, PAP, SCP, SQL, ZIP
Transport LayerTransport LayerTCP, UDP
Internet LayerNetwork LayerICMP, IGMP, IPsec, IPv4, IPv6, IPX, RIP
Link LayerData Link LayerARP, ATM, CDP, FDDI, Frame Relay, HDLC, MPLS, PPP, STP, Token Ring
Physical LayerBluetooth, Ethernet, DSL, ISDN, 802.11 Wi-Fi

Computer Network Protocols:

Network ProtocolDescriptionPort number of protocol
Ethernet

A family of protocols that specify how devices on the same network segment format and transmit data.

44818, 2222
Wi-Fi or WLAN

A family of protocols that deal with wireless transm­ission.

-

TCP

Splits data into packets (reassembles later). Error checking is also included, as the acknowledgment is expected to be sent within a specified timeframe.

22
UDP

User Datagram Protocol

4096-65535
IP

Every device has an IP address. Packets are "addressed" to ensure they reach the correct user.

-
HTTP

Used to access web pages from a web server.

80
HTTP'S

 uses encryption to protect data.

443
FTP

File Transfer Protocol: Handles file uploads and downloads, transferring data and programs.

21
SMTP

SMTP server has a database of user email addresses. Internet Message Access Protocol: Handles incoming mail.

587
IMAP

Internet Message Access Protocol: Process incoming mail.

993
ARP

ARP finds a host's hardware address (also known as MAC (Media Access Control) address) based on its known IP address.

-
DNS

DNS is the host name for the IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed database implemented on a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer protocol for messaging between clients and servers.

53
FTPS

FTPS is known as FTP SSL which refers to File Transfer Protocol (FTP) over Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) which is more secure from FTP. FTPS also called as File Transfer Protocol Secure.

21
POP3

POP3 is a simple protocol that only allows downloading messages from your Inbox to your local computer.

110
SIP

Session Initiation Protocol was designed by IETF and is described in RFC 3261. It’s the protocol of application layer that describes the way to found out Internet telephone calls, video conferences and other multimedia connections, manage them and terminate them.

5060,5061
SMB

The SMB protocol was developed by Microsoft for direct file sharing over local networks.

139
SNMP

SNMP is an application layer protocol that uses UDP port numbers 161/162. SNMP is also used to monitor networks, detect network errors, and sometimes configure remote devices.

161
SSH

SSH (Secure Shell) is the permissions used by the SSH protocol. That is, a cryptographic network protocol used to send encrypted data over a network.

22
VNC

VNC stands for Virtual Network Communication.

5900
RPC

Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a powerful technique for building distributed client-server based applications. It is based on extending traditional calls to local procedures so that the called procedure does not have to be in the same address space as the calling procedure.

1024 to 5000
NFS

NFS uses file handles to uniquely identify the file or directory on which the current operation is being performed. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to provide error control. Used for reporting errors and administrative queries.

2049
ICMP

Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to provide an error control. It is used for reporting errors and management queries.

-
BOOTP

Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a network protocol used by network management to assign IP addresses to each member of that network in order to join other network devices through a main server.

67
DHCP

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is an application layer protocol. DHCP is based on a client-server model, based on discoveries, offers, requests, and ACKs.

68
NAT

Network Address Translation (NAT) is the process of translating one or more local IP addresses into one or more global IP addresses, or vice versa, in order to provide Internet access to local hosts.

5351
PPP

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is basically an asymmetric protocol suite for various connections or links without framing. H. Raw bit pipe. PPP also expects other protocols to establish connections, authenticate users, and carry network layer data as well.

1994
RIP

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol that uses hop count as a routing metric to find the best path between source and destination networks.

520
OSPF

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol used to find the best path between a source and destination router using its own shortest path first).

89
EIGRP

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a dynamic routing protocol used to find the best path and deliver packets between any two Layer 3 devices.

88
BGP

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a protocol used to exchange Internet routing information and is used between ISPs in different ASes.

179
STP

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is used to create a loop-free network by monitoring the network, tracking all connections, and shutting down the least redundant connections.

0 to 255
RARP

RARP, stand for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, is a computer network-based protocol used by client computers to request IP addresses from a gateway server's Address Resolution Protocol table or cache.

-
LAPD

The D-channel LAPD or Link Access Protocol is basically the Layer 2 protocol normally required for the ISDN D-channel. It is derived from the LAPB (Link Access Protocol Balanced) protocol.

-
IPsec

IP Security (IPSec) is a standard suite of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) protocols between two communication points on IP networks to provide data authentication, integrity, and confidentiality. It also defines encrypted, decrypted, and authenticated packets.

4500
ASCII

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the standard character encoding used in telecommunications. The ASCII representation "ask-ee" is strictly a 7-bit code based on the English alphabet. ASCII codes are used to represent alphanumeric data.

9500
EBCDIC

EBCDIC (Extended Binary Encoded Decimal Interchange Code) (pronounced "ehb-suh-dik" or "ehb-kuh-dik") is an alphanumeric binary code developed by IBM to run large-scale computer systems .

-
X.25 PAD

X.25 is an International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) protocol standard simply for Wide Area Network (WAN) communications that basically describes how the connections among user devices and network devices are established and maintained. 

-
HDLC

High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) commonly uses the term "frame" to denote units or logs of units of data that are frequently transmitted or transmitted from one station to another, express. Each frame on the link must start and end with a flag sequence field (F).

-
SLIP

SLIP stands for Serial Line Internet Protocol. It is a TCP/IP implementation which was described under RFC 1055 (Request for Comments).

 
LAP

Link Access Procedure (LAP) is basically considered as an ITU family of Data Link Layer (DLL) protocols that are subsets of High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC). LAP is particularly derived from IBM’s System Development Life Cycle (SDLC).

-
NCP

Network Control Protocol (NCP) is a set of protocols that are part of Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

524
Mobile IP

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending the Internet Protocol, IP) that allows a user to move from one network to another using the same her IP address.

434
VOIP

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allowing you to make voice calls over a broadband Internet connection instead of an analog (regular) phone line. Some VoIP services allow you to call people using the same service, but others may allow you to call anyone.

5060
LDAP

Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is an internet protocol works on TCP/IP, used to access information from directories. LDAP protocol is basically used to access an active directory.

389
GRE

GRE or Generic Routing Encapsulation is a tunneling protocol developed by Cisco. It encapsulates IP packets i.e. deliverable inner packets into outer packets.

47
AH

The HTTP headers Authorization header is a request type header that used to contains the credentials information to authenticate a user through a server. If the server responds with 401 Unauthorized and the WWW-Authenticate header not usually.

51
ESP

Encapsulation security payload, also abbreviated as ESP plays a very important role in network security. ESP or Encapsulation security payload is an individual protocol in IPSec.

500
NNTP

Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is the underlying protocol of UseNet, which is a worldwide discussion system which contains posts or articles which are known as news.

119
RPC-DCOM

DCOM- Distributed Component Object Model– helps remote object via running on a protocol known as the Object Remote Procedure Call (ORPC).

-
IRC

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is an Internet application that was developed by Jakko Oikarinen in Finland. Chat is the most convenient immediate way to communicate with others via Internet.

6667

IEEE Standards:

StandardsDescription
IEEE 802LAN/MAN 
IEEE 802.1LAN/MAN Bridging and management
IEEE 802.1sMultiple spanning tree
IEEE 802.1 wRapid reconfiguration of spanning tree
IEEE 802.1xPort-based network access control
IEEE 802.2Logical Link Control (LLC)
IEEE 802.3CSMA/CD access method (Ethernet)
IEEE 802.3ae10 Gigabit Ethernet
IEEE 802.4Token passing bus access method and Physical layer specifications
IEEE 802.5Token Ring access method and Physical layer specifications
IEEE 802.6Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) access method and Physical layer specifications (MAN)
IEEE 802.7Broadband LAN
IEEE 802.8Fiber Optic
IEEE 802.9Isochronous LANs (standard withdrawn)
IEEE 802.10Interoperable LAN/MAN Security
IEEE 802.11Wireless LAN MAC and Physical layer specifications
IEEE 802.11aWireless with speed upto 54 Mbps
IEEE 802.11bWireless with speed upto 11 Mbps
IEEE 802.11gWireless with speed upto 54 Mbps
IEEE 802.11nWireless with speed upto 600 Mbps
IEEE 802.12Demand-priority access method, physical layer and repeater specifications
IEEE 802.13Not used
IEEE 802.14Cable modems (proposed standard was withdrawn)
IEEE 802.15Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
IEEE 802.16Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (Wireless MAN)
IEEE 802.17Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) Access

Networking Devices:

DeviceDescription
Client

Any device, such as a workstation, laptop, tablet, or smartphone, that is used to access a network.

Server

Provides resources to network users, including email, web pages, or files.

Hub

A Layer 1 device that does not perform any inspection of traffic. A hub simply receives traffic in a port and repeats that traffic out of all the other ports.

Switch

A Layer 2 device that makes its forwarding decisions based on the destination Media Access Control (MAC) address. A switch learns which devices reside off which ports by examining the source MAC address. The switch then forwards traffic only to the appropriate port, and not to all the other ports.

Router

A Layer 3 device that makes forwarding decisions based on Internet Protocol (IP) addressing. Based on the routing table, the router intelligently forwards the traffic out of the appropriate interface.

Multilayer switch

Can operate at both Layer 2 and Layer 3. Also called a Layer 3 switch, a multilayer switch is a high-performance device that can switch traffic within the LAN and for- ward packets between subnets.

Media

Media can be copper cabling, fiber-optic cabling, or radio waves. Media varies in its cost, bandwidth capacity, and distance limitation.

Analog modem

Modem is short for modulator/demodulator. An analog modem converts the digital signals generated by a computer into analog signals that can travel over conventional phone lines.

Broadband modem

A digital modem used with high-speed DSL or cable Internet service. Both operate in a similar manner to the analog modem, but use higher broadband frequencies and transmission speeds.

Access point (AP)

A network device with a built-in antenna, transmitter, and adapter that provides a connection point between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. APs usually have several wired RJ-45 ports to support LAN clients. Most small office or home office (SOHO) routers integrate an AP.

Cables in Networking Devices:

Ethernet Standards (IEEE)Data RateCable Fiber TypeMaximum Distance (IEEE)
Ethernet (10Base-FL)10 Mbps50m or 62.5um Multimode @ 850nm2km
Fast Ethernet (100Base-FX)100 Mbps50m or 62.5um Multimode @ 1300nm2km
Fast Ethernet (100Base-SX)100 Mbps50m or 62.5um Multimode @ 850nm300m
Gigabit Ethernet (1000Base-SX)1000 Mbps50m Multimode @ 850nm550m
Gigabit Ethernet (1000Base-SX)1000 Mbps62.5um Multimode @ 850nm220m
Gigabit Ethernet (1000Base-LX)1000 Mbps50m or 62.5um Multimode @ 1300nm550m
Gigabit Ethernet (1000Base-LX)1000 Mbps9um Singlemode @1310nm5km
Gigabit Ethernet (1000Base-LH)1000 Mbps9um Singlemode @1550nm70km

Types of Ethernet Networks:

SpeedCommon NameInformal IEEE Standard NameFormal IEEE Standard NameCable Type, Maximum Length
10 MbpsEthernet10BASE-T802.3Copper, 100 m
100 MbpsFast Ethernet100BASE-T802.3uCopper, 100 m
1000 MbpsGigabit Ethernet1000BASE-LX802.3zFiber, 5000 m
1000 MbpsGigabit Ethernet1000BASE-T802.3abCopper, 100 m
10 Gbps10 Gig Ethernet10GBASE-T802.3anCopper, 100 m

Types of Network Connections:

TypeDescription
InternetA network  of millions of interconnected and cooperatively connected computers is called the Internet. Internet includes people, resources and means of collaboration
IntranetIt is an internal private network built within an organization using Internet and World Wide Web standards and products that provides access to corporate information for the organization's employees.
ExtranetThis is a type of network that allows external users  to access  an organization's intranet.

Transmission Meia:

  • Guided Media: 
Type of mediaDescription
Twisted Pair CableIt is a superimposed winding of two separately insulated conductors. As a rule, several such pairs are grouped together in a protective cover. They are the most widely used transmission media.
Coaxial CableIt has a PVC or Teflon insulating layer and an outer plastic sheath containing two parallel conductors, each with a separate conformal protective cover.
Optical Fiber CableIt uses the concept of light reflection  through a  glass or plastic core. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic shell called the cladding. Used to transfer large amounts of data.
StriplineStripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M. Barrett at the Air Force Cambridge Research Center in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of  planar transmission line.
MicrostriplineConductive material is separated from the ground plane by a dielectric layer.
  • Unguided Media: 
Type of mediaDescription
Radio wavesThese are easy to generate and can penetrate  buildings. There is no need to align the transmit and receive antennas. Frequency Range: 3kHz - 1GHz AM radios, FM radios, and cordless phones use radio waves for transmission.
MicrowavesMultiplexer types: line-of-sight transmission. H. Transmitting and receiving antennas should be placed properly. The distance a signal travels is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range: 1GHz - 300GHz They are mainly used for mobile telephony and television distribution.
InfraredInfrared is used for  short distance communication. Obstacles cannot be penetrated. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range: 300GHz - 400THz It is used in TV remote controls, wireless mice, keyboards, printers, etc.

Types of Multiplexers:

TypeDescription
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The frequency spectrum is divided into logical channels and each user has exclusive access to his channel. It transmits signals in several different frequency ranges and  multiple video channels over a single cable. Each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency and the carrier frequencies are separated by guard bands.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Each user  gets full bandwidth for a short period of time on a regular basis. The entire channel is dedicated to her one user, but only for a short  time.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

This is the same as FDM but applied to fiber, with the difference  that here the operating frequency is much higher, actually  in the optical range. Due to its extremely high bandwidth, fiber optic has great potential.

Collision Detection:

TypeDescription
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

In this method, after sending a frame, the station monitors the media to see if the transmission was successful. If successful, the transmission is terminated, otherwise the frame is retransmitted.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that stations must be able to receive while transmitting in order to detect collisions from different stations. A collision in a wired network nearly doubles the energy of the received signal, allowing stations to detect a potential collision.

ALOHA

It was developed for wifi, but can also be used for shared media. Multiple stations can transmit data at the same time, which can  lead to collisions and data corruption.

Network Layer Services:

TypeDescription
PacketizingThe process of encapsulating  data (also called payload) received from upper layers of the network into network layer packets at the source and decapsulating the payload from the network layer packets at the destination is called packetization.
Routing and ForwardingThese are two other services provided by the network layer. A network has many routes from a  source to a destination. The network layer sets some strategies for finding the best possible route. This process is called routing.

Mode of Communication:

TypesDescription
Simplex ModeIn simplex mode,  communication is one-way, like one-way. Only one of the two devices on the link can transmit, the other can only receive. Simplex mode allows data to be sent in one direction using the full capacity of the channel.
Half-Duplex Mode In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device transmits, the other device can only receive and vice versa. Half-duplex mode is used when simultaneous communication in both directions is not required.
Full-Duplex Mode

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals  in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals  in the other direction. This sharing can be done in two ways:

  • Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving.
  • Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions. 

Classes in Computer Networking:

CLASSLEADING BITSNET ID BITSHOST ID BITSNO. OF NETWORKSADDRESSES PER NETWORKSTART ADDRESSEND ADDRESS
CLASS A082427 ( 128)24 2 (16,777,216)0.0.0.0127.255.255.255
CLASS B10161614 2 (16,384)16 2 (65,536)128.0.0.0191.255.255.255
CLASS C11024821 2 (2,097,152)8 2 (256)192.0.0.0223.255.255.255
CLASS D1110NOT DEFINEDNOT DEFINEDNOT DEFINEDNOT DEFINED224.0.0.0239.255.255.255
CLASS E1111NOT DEFINEDNOT DEFINEDNOT DEFINEDNOT DEFINED240.0.0.0255.255.255.255
Subnet Address or Subnet ID Using/16Prefix1st Usable IP AddressLast usable IP AddressBroadcast Address
120.0.0.0/24120.0.0.1120.0.255.254120.0.255.255
120.1.0.0/24120.1.0.1120.1.255.254120.1.255.255
120.2.0.0/24120.2.0.1120.2.255.254120.2.255.255
120.3.0.0/24120.3.0.1120.3.255.254120.3.255.255
120.100.0.0/24120.100.0.1120.100.255.254120.100.255.255
120.101.0.0/24120.101.0.1120.101.255.254120.101.255.255
120.200.0.0/24120.200.0.1120.200.255.254120.200.255.255
120.201.0.0/24120.201.0.1120.201.255.254120.201.255.255
120.253.0.0/24120.253.0.1120.253.255.254120.253.255.255
120.254.0.0/24120.254.0.1120.254.255.254120.254.255.255
120.255.0.0/24120.255.0.1120.255.255.254120.255.255.255

Subnetting:

Private IP Address with Subnet MaskPrivate IP RangePrivate IP Range denoted in CIDR
10.0.0.0 255.0.0.010.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.25510.0.0.0/8
172.16.0.0 255.240.0.0172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255172.16.0.0/12
192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255192.168.0.0/16
CIDRSUBNET MASKWILDCARD MASK# OF IP ADDRESSES# OF USABLE IP ADDRESSES
/32255.255.255.2550.0.0.011
/31255.255.255.2540.0.0.122*
/30255.255.255.2520.0.0.342
/29255.255.255.2480.0.0.786
/28255.255.255.2400.0.0.151614
/27255.255.255.2240.0.0.313230
/26255.255.255.1920.0.0.636462
/25255.255.255.1280.0.0.127128126
/24255.255.255.00.0.0.255256254
/23255.255.254.00.0.1.255512510
/22255.255.252.00.0.3.2551,0241,022
/21255.255.248.00.0.7.2552,0482,046
/20255.255.240.00.0.15.2554,0964,094
/19255.255.224.00.0.31.2558,1928,190
/18255.255.192.00.0.63.25516,38416,382
/17255.255.128.00.0.127.25532,76832,766
/16255.255.0.00.0.255.25565,53665,534
/15255.254.0.00.1.255.255131,072131,070
/14255.252.0.00.3.255.255262,144262,142
/13255.248.0.00.7.255.255524,288524,286
/12255.240.0.00.15.255.2551,048,5761,048,574
/11255.224.0.00.31.255.2552,097,1522,097,150
/10255.192.0.00.63.255.2554,194,3044,194,302
/9255.128.0.00.127.255.2558,388,6088,388,606
/8255.0.0.00.255.255.25516,777,21616,777,214
/7254.0.0.01.255.255.25533,554,43233,554,430
/6252.0.0.03.255.255.25567,108,86467,108,862
/5248.0.0.07.255.255.255134,217,728134,217,726
/4240.0.0.015.255.255.255268,435,456268,435,454
/3224.0.0.031.255.255.255536,870,912536,870,910
/2192.0.0.063.255.255.2551,073,741,8241,073,741,822
/1128.0.0.0127.255.255.2552,147,483,6482,147,483,646
/00.0.0.0255.255.255.2554,294,967,2964,294,967,294

Methods of Network Security:

MethodDescription
Authen­tic­ationVerify a user's identity, usually by asking them to enter a password or biometric identifier.
EncryptionEncrypt data with a key,  that is, the same key is required to decrypt the data. This is how HTTPS works.
FirewallsProtect the network from unauthorized access.
MAC Address FilteringAllow devices to access or be prevented from accessing the network based on their physical address embedded in the device's network adapter.

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    The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model, responsible for the physical and electrical transmission of data. It consists of various network components such as power plugs, connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The physical layer sends data bits fro
    4 min read
    Types of Network Topology
    Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its advantages and disadvantages. In this article, we will discuss different types of n
    11 min read
    Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)
    Transmission modes also known as communication modes, are methods of transferring data between devices on buses and networks designed to facilitate communication. They are classified into three types: Simplex Mode, Half-Duplex Mode, and Full-Duplex Mode. In this article, we will discuss Transmission
    6 min read
    Types of Transmission Media
    Transmission media is the physical medium through which data is transmitted from one device to another within a network. These media can be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference. In this article, we will discuss the transmission media. In t
    9 min read

    Data Link Layer

    Data Link Layer in OSI Model
    The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System Interconnection) network architecture model. Responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data within the same local network. Major role is to ensure error-free transmission of information. Also responsible for encoding,
    4 min read
    What is Switching?
    Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one device to another in a network, or from one network to another, using specific devices called switches. A computer user experiences switching all the time for example, accessing the Internet from your computer device, whenever a user req
    5 min read
    Virtual LAN (VLAN)
    Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a concept in which we can divide the devices logically on layer 2 (data link layer). Generally, layer 3 devices divide the broadcast domain but the broadcast domain can be divided by switches using the concept of VLAN. A broadcast domain is a network segment in which if a devic
    7 min read
    Framing in Data Link Layer
    Frames are the units of digital transmission, particularly in computer networks and telecommunications. Frames are comparable to the packets of energy called photons in the case of light energy. Frame is continuously used in Time Division Multiplexing process. Framing is a point-to-point connection
    6 min read
    Error Control in Data Link Layer
    Data-link layer uses the techniques of error control simply to ensure and confirm that all the data frames or packets, i.e. bit streams of data, are transmitted or transferred from sender to receiver with certain accuracy. Using or providing error control at this data link layer is an optimization,
    4 min read
    Flow Control in Data Link Layer
    Flow control is design issue at Data Link Layer. It is a technique that generally observes the proper flow of data from sender to receiver. It is very essential because it is possible for sender to transmit data or information at very fast rate and hence receiver can receive this information and pro
    4 min read
    Piggybacking in Computer Networks
    Piggybacking is the technique of delaying outgoing acknowledgment temporarily and attaching it to the next data packet. When a data frame arrives, the receiver waits and does not send the control frame (acknowledgment) back immediately. The receiver waits until its network layer moves to the next da
    5 min read

    Network Layer

    Network Layer in OSI Model
    The Network Layer is the 5th Layer from the top and the 3rd layer from the Bottom of the OSI Model. It is one of the most important layers which plays a key role in data transmission. The main job of this layer is to maintain the quality of the data and pass and transmit it from its source to its de
    5 min read
    Introduction of Classful IP Addressing
    Classful IP addressing is an obsolete method for allocating IP addresses and dividing the available IP address space across networks. It was used from 1981 to 1993 until the introduction of CIDR (Based on Prefixes rather than classes). Classful method categorizes IP addresses into five classes (A, B
    10 min read
    Classless Addressing in IP Addressing
    The Network address identifies a network on the internet. Using this, we can find a range of addresses in the network and total possible number of hosts in the network. Mask is a 32-bit binary number that gives the network address in the address block when AND operation is bitwise applied on the mas
    7 min read
    What is an IP Address?
    Imagine every device on the internet as a house. For you to send a letter to a friend living in one of these houses, you need their home address. In the digital world, this home address is what we call an IP (Internet Protocol) Address. It's a unique string of numbers separated by periods (IPv4) or
    14 min read
    IPv4 Datagram Header
    IP stands for Internet Protocol and v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4). IPv4 was the primary version brought into action for production within the ARPANET in 1983. IP version four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in decimal notation. In this article, we will discuss about IPv4 da
    4 min read
    Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6
    IPv4 and IPv6 are two versions of the system that gives devices a unique address on the internet, known as the Internet Protocol (IP). IP is like a set of rules that helps devices send and receive data online. Since the internet is made up of billions of connected devices, each one needs its own spe
    7 min read
    Difference between Private and Public IP addresses
    IP Address or Internet Protocol Address is a type of address that is required to communicate one computer with another computer for exchanging information, file, webpage, etc. Public and Private IP address are two important parts of device identity. In this article, we will see the differences betwe
    6 min read
    Introduction To Subnetting
    Subnetting is the process of dividing a large network into smaller networks called "subnets." Subnets provide each group of devices with their own space to communicate, which ultimately helps the network to work easily. This also boosts security and makes it easier to manage the network, as each sub
    8 min read
    What is Routing?
    The process of choosing a path across one or more networks is known as Network Routing. Nowadays, individuals are more connected on the internet and hence, the need to use Routing Communication is essential.Routing chooses the routes along which Internet Protocol (IP) packets get from their source t
    10 min read
    Network Layer Protocols
    Network Layer is responsible for the transmission of data or communication from one host to another host connected in a network. Rather than describing how data is transferred, it implements the technique for efficient transmission. In order to provide efficient communication protocols are used at t
    9 min read

    Transport Layer

    Transport Layer in OSI Model
    The transport layer, or layer 4 of the OSI model, controls network traffic between hosts and end systems to guarantee full data flows. It is positioned between the network and session layers in the OSI paradigm. The data packets must be taken and sent to the appropriate machine by the network layer.
    5 min read
    Transport Layer Protocols
    The transport layer is the fourth layer in the OSI model and the second layer in the TCP/IP model. The transport layer provides with end to end connection between the source and the destination and reliable delivery of the services. Therefore transport layer is known as the end-to-end layer. The tra
    9 min read
    What is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)?
    Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol for communications that helps in the exchange of messages between different devices over a network. It is one of the main protocols of the TCP/IP suite. In OSI model, it operates at the transport layer(Layer 4). It lies between th
    5 min read
    User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
    User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the Internet Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no need to establish a connection before data transfer. The UDP helps to establish low-late
    10 min read

    Session Layer & Presentation Layer

    Session Layer in OSI model
    The Session Layer is the 5th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model which plays an important role in controlling the dialogues (connections) between computers. This layer is responsible for setting up, coordinating, and terminating conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the ap
    6 min read
    Presentation Layer in OSI model
    Presentation Layer is the 6th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This layer is also known as Translation layer, as this layer serves as a data translator for the network. The data which this layer receives from the Application Layer is extracted and manipulated here as per the req
    4 min read
    Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
    SSL or Secure Sockets Layer, is an Internet security protocol that encrypts data to keep it safe. It was created by Netscape in 1995 to ensure privacy, authentication, and data integrity in online communications. SSL is the older version of what we now call TLS (Transport Layer Security).Websites us
    10 min read
    PPTP Full Form - Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
    PPTP Stands for Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol is a widely used networking protocol designed to create a secure private connection over a public network like the internet. It is Developed by Microsoft and other tech companies in the 1990s It is one of the first protocols used for Virtual Private
    5 min read
    Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) Protocol
    MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a standard used to extend the format of email messages, allowing them to include more than just text. It enables the transmission of multimedia content such as images, audio, video, and attachments, within email messages, as well as other types of cont
    4 min read

    Application Layer

    Application Layer in OSI Model
    The Application Layer of OSI (Open System Interconnection) model, is the top layer in this model and takes care of network communication. The application layer provides the functionality to send and receive data from users. It acts as the interface between the user and the application. The applicati
    5 min read
    Client-Server Model
    The Client-Server Model is a distributed architecture where clients request services and servers provide them. Clients send requests to servers, which process them and return the results. Clients don’t share resources among themselves but depend on the server. Common examples include email systems a
    5 min read
    World Wide Web (WWW)
    The World Wide Web (WWW), often called the Web, is a system of interconnected webpages and information that you can access using the Internet. It was created to help people share and find information easily, using links that connect different pages together. The Web allows us to browse websites, wat
    6 min read
    Introduction to Electronic Mail
    Introduction:Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is a method of exchanging messages over the internet. Here are the basics of email:An email address: This is a unique identifier for each user, typically in the format of name@domain.com.An email client: This is a software program used to send,
    4 min read
    What is a Content Distribution Network and how does it work?
    Over the last few years, there has been a huge increase in the number of Internet users. YouTube alone has 2 Billion users worldwide, while Netflix has over 160 million users. Streaming content to such a wide demographic of users is no easy task. One can think that a straightforward approach to this
    4 min read
    Protocols in Application Layer
    The Application Layer is the topmost layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. This layer provides several ways for manipulating the data which enables any type of user to access the network with ease. The Application Layer interface directly interacts with the application and provides c
    7 min read

    Advanced Topics

    What is Network Security?
    Network security is defined as the activity created to protect the integrity of your network and data. Network security is the practice of protecting a computer network from unauthorized access, misuse, or attacks. It involves using tools, technologies, policies, and procedures to ensure the confide
    8 min read
    Computer Network | Quality of Service and Multimedia
    Quality of Service (QoS) is an important concept, particularly when working with multimedia applications. Multimedia applications, such as video conferencing, streaming services, and VoIP (Voice over IP), require certain bandwidth, latency, jitter, and packet loss parameters. QoS methods help ensure
    7 min read
    Authentication in Computer Network
    Prerequisite - Authentication and Authorization Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user or information. User authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user when that user logs in to a computer system. There are different types of authentication systems wh
    4 min read
    Encryption, Its Algorithms And Its Future
    Encryption plays a vital role in today’s digital world, serving a major role in modern cyber security. It involves converting plain text into cipher text, ensuring that sensitive information remains secure from unauthorized access. By making data unreadable to unauthorized parties, encryption helps
    10 min read
    Introduction of Firewall in Computer Network
    A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security rules, it accepts, rejects, or drops that specific traffic. It acts like a security guard that helps keep your digital world safe from u
    7 min read
    MAC Filtering in Computer Network
    There are two kinds of network Adapters. A wired adapter allows us to set up a connection to a modem or router via Ethernet in a computer whereas a wireless adapter identifies and connects to remote hot spots. Each adapter has a distinct label known as a MAC address which recognizes and authenticate
    10 min read
    Wi-Fi Standards Explained
    Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity, and it is developed by an organization called IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) they set standards for the Wi-Fi system. Each Wi-Fi network standard has two parameters : Speed - This is the data transfer rate of the network measured in Mbps
    4 min read
    What is Bluetooth?
    Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data communications over smaller distances. This generation changed into being invented via Ericson in 1994. It operates within the unlicensed, business,
    6 min read
    Generations of wireless communication
    We have made very huge improvements in wireless communication and have expanded the capabilities of our wireless communication system. We all have seen various generations in our life. Let's discuss them one by one. 0th Generation: Pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones
    2 min read
    Cloud Networking
    Cloud Networking is a service or science in which a company’s networking procedure is hosted on a public or private cloud. Cloud Computing is source management in which more than one computing resources share an identical platform and customers are additionally enabled to get entry to these resource
    11 min read

    Practice

    Top 50 Plus Networking Interview Questions and Answers for 2024
    Networking is defined as connected devices that may exchange data or information and share resources. A computer network connects computers to exchange data via a communication media. Computer networking is the most often asked question at leading organizations such Cisco, Accenture, Uber, Airbnb, G
    15+ min read
    Top 50 TCP/IP Interview Questions and Answers 2025
    Understanding TCP/IP is essential for anyone working in IT or networking. It's a fundamental part of how the internet and most networks operate. Whether you're just starting or you're looking to move up in your career, knowing TCP/IP inside and out can really give you an edge.In this interview prepa
    15+ min read
    Top 50 IP Addressing Interview Questions and Answers
    In today’s digital age, every device connected to the internet relies on a unique identifier called an IP Address. If you’re aiming for a career in IT or networking, mastering the concept of IP addresses is crucial. In this engaging blog post, we’ll explore the most commonly asked IP address intervi
    15+ min read
    Last Minute Notes for Computer Networks
    Computer Networks is an important subject in the GATE Computer Science syllabus. It encompasses fundamental concepts like Network Models, Routing Algorithms, Congestion Control, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, and Network Security. These topics are essential for understanding how data is transmitted, managed
    14 min read
    Computer Network - Cheat Sheet
    A computer network is an interconnected computing device that can exchange data and share resources. These connected devices use a set of rules called communication protocols to transfer information over physical or wireless technology. Modern networks offer more than just connectivity. Enterprises
    15+ min read
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