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History of Benin

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History of Benin
Coat of arms of Benin
History of the Kingdom of Dahomey
Early history
Modern period

The History of Benin since the 16th century, for the geographical area included in 1960 in what was then called the Republic of Dahomey before becoming the People's Republic of Benin.

Etymology

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The Republic of Benin derives its name from one of the most powerful precolonial West African kingdoms, the Kingdom of Benin, which was centered in present-day Benin City, now located in Nigeria. According to some historians, the name Benin is a Portuguese rendering of the Itsekiri word oubinou, meaning "seat of royalty", which referred to the kingdom’s capital. The term oubinou may itself stem from a combination of the Yoruba word oba ("king") and bini, the self-designation of the Edo people. Other sources suggest Benin originated from the Yoruba phrase ile-ibinu, meaning "land of disputes", possibly alluding to internal conflicts within the kingdom. A further hypothesis posits that bini may derive from the Arabic bani, meaning "sons of".[1]

Before 1975, the country was known as Dahomey, a name referencing one of the major historical kingdoms in the region. According to the political authorities at the time, this name was considered inappropriate for a multiethnic state, as it referred primarily to one of the country's major ethnic groups.[2]

Early inhabitants

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The area now known as Benin has been inhabited since ancient times by very old African populations, as is the case across much of the continent. It is now widely accepted that the earliest known inhabitants of the territory were small-statured people commonly referred to as pygmies,[3][4][a] remnants of whom are still found in parts of Central Africa. These early populations lived in scattered clans and eventually disappeared from West Africa through gradual assimilation with larger-statured groups migrating from neighboring regions, particularly from the vast Sahara, which at the time was experiencing prolonged droughts that contributed to its desertification.[5]

The migrants from the ancient Sahara are believed to be the ancestors of various ethnically mixed peoples who later settled and cohabited in what became Benin. These include the Fon, Aizo, Holi, Toffin, Aja, Waci, Guin, Hueda, Houla, Goun, Yoruba, Batombu, Dendi, Fulbe, Bariba, Waba, and Yowa, among others. Long before the Common Era, major West African kingdoms such as the Dahomey and Bariba kingdoms began to emerge in this wider Sahelian context.[6]

Genetic studies

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A 2015 study by Larmuseau et al. investigated the paternal genetic landscape of populations along the Bight of Benin, focusing on four groups from present-day Benin: the Fon, Yoruba, Bariba, and Dendi. Using Y-chromosomal markers, the research revealed significant genetic diversity among these populations, reflecting complex historical migrations and interactions.

The study found that the Beninese Yoruba exhibit notable genetic differentiation not only from neighboring groups but also from the Yoruba in Nigeria, suggesting distinct paternal lineages and historical developments. This diversity underscores the intricate demographic history of the region, shaped by various migration events and cultural exchanges.[7]

Precontact period

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Mythic era - 16th and 17th centuries

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The origins of most Gbe polities are poorly understood, but historical sources indicate that throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, these polities vied for dominance over Atlantic commercial routes.[8] This resulted in significant political and economic expansion. Colin Renfrew (1986) proposed the concept of "peer polity interaction" to describe how sociopolitical complexity can emerge not solely from internal developments but also through interaction between neighboring independent polities. This interaction encompassed emulation, competition, warfare, and trade. On the Slave Coast, this dynamic contributed to the rise of two dominant kingdoms: Allada and Hueda.[8]

The Kingdom of Allada

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Founded in the sixteenth century, Kingdom of Allada rose as the dominant coastal polity in present-day southern Benin, leveraging early access to long-distance trade. Although little is known of its pre-European trade role, by the mid-sixteenth century Portuguese merchants were trading at its capital, Grand Ardra, now identified with the archaeological site of Togudo-Awute near modern Allada. From the 1560s, African captives labeled "Aradas" were recorded in Peru, and the city appeared on Portuguese charts after 1570.[9]

By the seventeenth century, Allada had grown significantly. Grand Ardra was home to approximately 30,000 inhabitants,[10] and the kingdom's military strength suggests a total population exceeding 200,000.[10] The Dutch West India Company acquired around 800 slaves annually from Allada between 1636 and 1647, and by the 1680s, the Slave Coast exported roughly 5,000 captives per year, increasing to 10,000 by the 1710s. Textiles and cowries comprised up to 81% of goods exchanged for captives.[11]

Allada's governance involved officials such as the Grand Captain (or Caminga), the Captain of the Whites (overseeing European trade), and the Captain of Horses. Royal authority was reinforced through rituals, although descriptions of religious institutions remain sparse and often dismissive. The king's crocodile deity, Tokpodun, may have functioned as a state cult.[12] Grand Customs, involving ritual wealth distribution and limited human sacrifice, were held upon a king's death, paralleling later practices in Dahomey.

The influx of European and Asian goods strengthened royal prestige and authority. These goods were showcased and distributed during public rituals, bolstering elite status and political cohesion. The king monopolized high-quality imports and required that foreign traders first purchase goods from the crown before dealing elsewhere.[13] Yet by the late seventeenth century, challenges mounted. Increased slave demand empowered secondary elites and rival ports like Whydah. Inland polities such as Dahomey began supplying captives directly. By 1670, only 17% of captives were sourced by the king himself.[14] The remainder came from caboceers and inland traders.

Allada's failure to centralize control over trade led to political fragmentation. Succession disputes, including Hussar's attempted usurpation of King Soso (1717–24), and revolts in key towns like Offra, destabilized the kingdom.[14] Consequently, European traders increasingly shifted their focus elsewhere by the century's end.[14]

The Kingdom of Hueda

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Hueda (Whydah), located just east of Allada, emerged as a powerful coastal polity by the late seventeenth century. Its rise was closely tied to the expansion of Atlantic commerce, particularly the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Unlike Allada, Hueda developed as a port-focused kingdom, with its principal town of Savi becoming a major hub for European trade. By the 1680s, Whydah had overtaken Allada as the primary slave-exporting port on the Slave Coast.[14]

Colonial Benin (formerly, Republic of Dahomey)

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Main article: French Dahomey

Dahomey was a French colony of and a part of French West Africa from 1904 to 1959. Under the French, a port was constructed at Cotonou, and railroads were built. School facilities were expanded by Roman Catholic missions. In 1946, Dahomey became an overseas territory with its own parliament and representation in the French national assembly. On December 4, 1958, it became the Republic of Dahomey.

Post-colonial Benin

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See also: Republic of Dahomey and People's Republic of Benin

20th century

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Between 1960 and 1972, a succession of military coups brought about many changes of government.[15] The last of these brought to power Major Mathieu Kérékou as the head of a regime professing strict Marxist-Leninist principles.[16] By 1975 the Republic of Dahomey changed its name to the People's Republic of Benin.[17] The People's Revolutionary Party of Benin (PRPB) remained in complete power until the beginning of the 1990s. Kérékou, encouraged by France and other democratic powers, convened a national conference that introduced a new democratic constitution and held presidential and legislative elections. Kérékou's principal opponent at the presidential poll, and the ultimate victor, was Prime Minister Nicéphore Soglo. Supporters of Soglo also secured a majority in the National Assembly.[18] Benin was thus the first African country to successfully complete the transition from a dictatorship to a pluralistic political system.[19]

In the second round of National Assembly elections held in March 1995, Zoglo's political vehicle, the Parti de la Renaissance du Benin, was the largest single party but lacked an overall majority. The success of a party formed by supporters of ex-president Kérékou, who had officially retired from active politics, allowed him to stand successfully at both the 1996 and 2001 presidential elections.[18]

2000s

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During the 2001 elections, however, alleged irregularities and dubious practices led to a boycott of the run-off poll by the main opposition candidates. The four top-ranking contenders following the first round presidential elections were Mathieu Kérékou (incumbent) 45.4%, Nicephore Soglo (former president) 27.1%, Adrien Houngbédji (National Assembly Speaker) 12.6%, and Bruno Amoussou (Minister of State) 8.6%. The second round balloting, originally scheduled for March 18, 2001, was postponed for days because both Soglo and Houngbedji withdrew, alleging electoral fraud. This left Kérékou to run against his own Minister of State, Amoussou, in what was termed a "friendly match."[18]

In December 2002, Benin held its first municipal elections since before the institution of Marxism-Leninism. The process was smooth with the significant exception of the 12th district council for Cotonou, the contest that would ultimately determine who would be selected for the mayoralty of the capital city. That vote was marred by irregularities, and the electoral commission was forced to repeat that single election. Nicephore Soglo's Renaissance du Benin (RB) party won the new vote, paving the way for the former president to be elected Mayor of Cotonou by the new city council in February 2002.[18]

National Assembly elections took place in March 2003 and were generally considered to be free and fair. Although there were some irregularities, these were not significant and did not greatly disrupt the proceedings or the results. These elections resulted in a loss of seats by RB—the primary opposition party. The other opposition parties, the Party for Democratic Renewal (PRD) led by the former Prime Minister Adrien Houngbedji and the Alliance Etoile (AE), joined the government coalition.[18]

Former West African Development Bank Director Yayi Boni won the March 2006 election for the presidency in a field of 26 candidates.[20] International observers including the United Nations, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and others called the election free, fair, and transparent. President Kérékou was barred from running under the 1990 constitution due to term and age limitations.[21] President Yayi was inaugurated on April 6, 2006.[18][22]

Benin held legislative elections on March 31, 2007, for the 83 seats in the National Assembly. The Force Cowrie for an Emerging Benin (FCBE), a coalition of parties, closely linked to President Yayi, won a plurality of the seats in the National Assembly, providing the president with considerable influence over the legislative agenda.[18]

2010s

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In March 2011, President Boni Yayi was re-elected with 53.13 percent of vote in the first-round of the election. His main rival rejected the results, claiming widespread irregularities.[23][24]

In October 2015, Benin's former President Mathieu Kerekou, who ruled the country a total of 28 years during his two spells as president (1972-1991 and 1996–2006), died at the age of 82.[25]

After President Boni Yayi had served maximum two five-year terms, businessman Patrice Talon succeeded him. Talon defeated prime minister Lionel Zinsou, the candidate for Boni Yayi's Cowry Forces for an Emerging Benin (FCBE), in the March 2016 presidential election.[26]

2020s

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In April 2021, incumbent Patrice Talon won re-election with 86 percent of the votes in the first round of the election. The change in election laws resulted in total control of parliament by president Talon's supporters.[27][28]

In April 2025, the government of Benin adopted a law, recognizing 16 kingdoms, 80 senior chiefs and 10 traditional chiefs through a new law, adopted in March 2025. The pre-colonial period, set at 1894 for the south and 1897 for the north of Benin, served as a historical reference for the bill to institutionalize chieftaincy in Benin. and to frame the rules on traditional territories.[29]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ The scientists then explored the admixture of Bantu speakers with the local populations they came into contact with. Their research demonstrates that over the past millennium, the Bantus admixed with pygmy populations from West-Central Africa.

References

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  1. ^ Breyo, Alexandre (2021). L'Histoire vraie du Bénin: Des premiers habitants à nos jours (in French). Paris: Independently published. p. 5. ISBN 979-8598978009.
  2. ^ Breyo 2021, p. 6
  3. ^ Patin, Etienne; Lopez, Marie; Grollemund, Rebecca; Verdu, Paul; Harmant, Christine; Quach, Hélène; Laval, Guillaume; Perry, George H.; Barreiro, Luis B.; Froment, Alain; Heyer, Evelyne; Quintana-Murci, Lluis (2017-05-05). "Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa". Science. 356 (6337): 543–546. doi:10.1126/science.aal1988. PMID 28473590.
  4. ^ "Migration history of Bantu-speaking people: Genomics reveals benefits of admixture and sheds new light". Institut Pasteur. 2017-05-05. Retrieved 2025-05-09.
  5. ^ Breyo 2021, p. 8
  6. ^ Breyo 2021, p. 9
  7. ^ Larmuseau, Maarten H. D.; Vessi, Andrea; Jobling, Mark A.; Van Geystelen, Anneleen; Primativo, Giuseppina; Biondi, Gianfranco; Martínez-Labarga, Cristina; Ottoni, Claudio; Decorte, Ronny; Rickards, Olga (2015). "The Paternal Landscape along the Bight of Benin – Testing Regional Representativeness of West-African Population Samples Using Y-Chromosomal Markers". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141510. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041510L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141510. PMC 4636292. PMID 26544036.
  8. ^ a b Monroe 2014, p. 42
  9. ^ Monroe, J. Cameron (2014). The Precolonial State in West Africa: Building Power in Dahomey. Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–47. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628709. ISBN 978-1-107-04018-2.
  10. ^ a b Monroe 2014, p. 43
  11. ^ Monroe 2014, p. 44
  12. ^ Monroe 2014, p. 45
  13. ^ Monroe 2014, p. 46
  14. ^ a b c d Monroe 2014, p. 47
  15. ^ Decalo, Samuel (1997). "Benin: First of the new democracies". In John F. Clark & David E. Gardinier (ed.). Political Reform in Francophone Africa. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. pp. 43–61.
  16. ^ Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders (2003), page 55.
  17. ^ Jamie Stokes. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z. Infobase Publishing, 2009. ISBN 0-8160-7158-6, p110.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g "Background Note: Benin". U.S. Department of State (June 2008). Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  19. ^ Thomson Gale (Firm). Countries of the world and their leaders yearbook 2007, Volume 1. Thomson Gale, 2006. ISBN 0-7876-8104-0, p212
  20. ^ "Boni wins Benin presidential election: official". ABC News. 22 March 2006.
  21. ^ "President Mathieu Kerekou leaves after 29 years". The New Humanitarian (in French). 7 April 2006.
  22. ^ "Benin: Celebration As Boni Takes Over".
  23. ^ Elijah, Samuel (22 March 2011). "Rival rejects poll win of Benin's Boni Yayi". Reuters.
  24. ^ "Benin's Boni Yayi wins second term - court". Reuters. 21 March 2011.
  25. ^ "Benin's 'father of democracy' Mathieu Kerekou dies at 82". BBC News. 15 October 2015.
  26. ^ "Businessman 'wins Benin's presidential election'". 21 March 2016.
  27. ^ "Benin's President Patrice Talon wins re-election with 86%".
  28. ^ "Benin vote count begins after opposition groups boycott election".
  29. ^ "Il Benin riconosce i capi tradizionali".

Bibliography

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